Investigating projectile penetration into immersed granular beds via CFD-DEM coupling

Abstract Projectile penetration into an immersed granular bed is a common phenomenon in both geophysics and engineering, encompassing various scenarios such as crater formation offshore soil-structure interaction. It involves the complex physical interaction between fluid materials. In this study, we investigate dynamics of projectile using coupled computational discrete element method (CFD-DEM). The composed polydisperse particles, modeled rigid sphere. morphology formation, projectile, drag force characteristics cases were studied detail compared to dry scenario. numerical results show that final depth follows empirical relation derived from experimental observations, where falling height during obey power-law function modified generalized Poncelet law, respectively. interstitial not only provides direct force, but also enhances effective by improving its friction viscosity different configurations. Micro-analyses velocity evolution contact network stages fluid–solid performed clarify dynamics. This research insights mechanisms effects on media, which are crucial engineering applications anchoring, ball tests soft sediments, interactions. Graphical